Eugenics, also known as "race hygiene," refers to a movement aimed at improving the genetic quality of a specific population. The term is usually attributed to the 19th-century British scientist Sir Francis Galton, who established the first eugenics laboratory at University College London (UCL) in 1904. However, ideas about improving the stock of the people quickly spread worldwide.

Estonia was not untouched by these ideas. According to Paris Pin-Yu Chen, who recently defended a doctoral thesis on the history of eugenics in Estonia at UCL, the local eugenics movement was not just the personal project of a few obsessed scientists. It had widespread support and institutional backing, even surpassing some major Central European countries in its reach and influence.

How did these Western ideas and practices arrive in Estonia? Who were the key figures and what methods did they use to improve the Estonian stock during the interwar period? Paris Pin-Yu Chen, a recipient of the Estophilus scholarship who is currently conducting research in Tartu archives, discussed these questions and more with ERR's Novaator.

Start of eugenics in Estonia, global networks and new trends

"Although eugenics began in the 19th century, its golden age was the first half of the 20th century. The idea that the characteristics of a population could be inherited and thus enhanced or eliminated through human intervention to improve the biological quality of a group gained popularity especially during the interwar period. In the broadest sense, eugenics was simply a new scientific way to frame old social problems," explained Chen.

According to the researcher, the history of eugenics in Estonia has two main starting points: Jaan Tõnisson and the University of Tartu. Chen noted that Tõnisson, the editor-in-chief of the newspaper Postimees and a future prime minister, was responsible for introducing initial eugenic ideas to Estonia. "Tõnisson was a leader of the temperance movement, and he believed that alcohol was causing the Estonian people to degenerate. After attending international temperance conferences, he likely picked up eugenic ideas there and came to the conclusion that there was a need to improve the Estonian race," Chen explained.

At the University of Tartu, the focus on eugenics intensified in the early 20th century. Although eugenics was not taught as a separate subject, Chen notes that eugenic thinking was present in the lectures of several prominent scientists of the time. One such figure was Professor Jevgeni Šepilevski, who authored the first eugenics book in Imperial Russia.

Šepilevski's ideas significantly influenced a generation of Estonians, and his reach extended beyond Estonia's borders. According to Chen, some of his students later became leading eugenicists in Latvia, including psychiatrist Hermanis Buduls and anthropologist Jēkabs Prīmanis.

Thus, Estonian eugenics did not develop in isolation. Just as Tõnisson found like-minded individuals abroad, Tartu scientists had networks that brought the latest ideas from Western European powers to them. Chen suggests that the best way to understand Estonian eugenics is to study it transnationally, considering the global power structures and hierarchies that shaped these contexts.

"Eugenics in Estonia, as elsewhere, was influenced by global trends, particularly the racial thinking propagated by imperialism and colonialism. This was further spread through international organizations that disseminated these ideas," Chen explained.

One such organization was the International Federation of Eugenic Organizations, which Estonia joined in 1928. According to Chen, this federation's ideology is most closely aligned today with white supremacist groups. "This eugenics movement in Estonia grew particularly strong in the late 1920s and 1930s, as Estonians began to be seen – and see themselves – not as part of the Asian race but as indisputable members of the white race. This shift in consciousness about their place in the global hierarchy made locals increasingly concerned about the eugenic decline of the nation," Chen added.

Like any other field of science, eugenics in Estonia and elsewhere was not internally consistent or free from tension. On the contrary, Chen noted that eugenics was marked by ongoing disputes between different schools of thought over methods and practices. The most significant of these disagreements, which eventually led to the splintering of the federation in 1933, was the distinction between positive and negative eugenics.

Positive eugenics aimed to promote the transmission of hereditary traits deemed beneficial to society. This approach focused on improving access to healthcare, providing child support and other measures to increase the birth rate among people considered sufficiently valuable.

As one might expect, negative eugenics operated on the opposite logic. Its proponents were concerned with limiting the reproductive abilities of those considered to be degrading the population's racial stock. Measures proposed included forced sterilization and marriage restrictions.

Main characters

According to Paris Chen, the history of eugenics in Estonia had two main protagonists: Hans Madisson and Juhan Vilms.

Madisson served as the secretary of the Estonian Eugenics Society and was the most ardent advocate for local sterilization laws. "He was an extreme radical in his views. He believed that all criminals and those deviating from societal sexual norms should be sterilized or castrated. Fortunately, not all of his ideas made it into the final version of the law enacted in 1937," Chen added.

Although Madisson was a contentious figure, Chen notes that he was particularly adept at promoting eugenics-related ideas. In the late 1920s, he founded a marriage counseling office in Tartu. "Madisson's approach was quite different from others. He advertised himself as offering help for those with sexual problems. This message garnered a lot of attention in the media at the time, making his office, which became a hub for spreading his ideas, very successful," explained Chen.

Similarly, another key figure in Estonian eugenics, Juhan Vilms, also worked as a marriage counselor, providing advice to those in need in Tallinn. Juhan, the brother of the famous statesman Jüri Vilms, came to eugenics through the temperance movement and led the Tallinn branch of the Estonian Eugenics Society. He was particularly committed to promoting eugenics through local physical culture initiatives.

"Madisson and Vilms were undoubtedly the most significant figures. They traveled around, gave public lectures, wrote in newspapers and produced pamphlets. Both were very active in the Estonian Eugenics Society. In comparison, other members were much more restrained," Chen explained.

Institutions

According to Chen, the most important organization for eugenics in Estonia was the Estonian Eugenics Society, established in 1924 in Tartu. The organization enjoyed widespread public support, attracting financial backing from high levels, including the head of state, the temperance movement, as well as institutions like the Tallinn Civil Registry Office and the Tartu City Government. Additionally, the organization earned revenue from the sale of literature, including a handbook on racial hygiene, which Chen noted was quite popular.

Chen explained that the Society underwent a significant ideological shift in the early 1930s. "The 1920s were very diverse in terms of focus. There was attention on a wide range of approaches, including improving the healthcare system, child welfare and eugenic sterilization. However, in the early 1930s, the focus shifted increasingly towards negative eugenics measures. Alongside sterilization, there was a growing emphasis on better enforcing marriage restrictions for people with mental disorders," Chen explained. The Society proposed that all couples seeking marriage through the civil registry office should present a health certificate before marrying.

In the 1930s, the Estonian Eugenics Society began collaborating with the Estonian Nationalists' Club, bringing immigration restrictions to the forefront – a topic prevalent in American eugenicists' messages. Chen suggests that this focus on immigration can be seen as a direct influence from transatlantic debates. Specifically, Estonian eugenicists proposed implementing health checks to assess whether immigrants met local eugenic standards. Although this issue garnered significant public attention, it was never enshrined in law.

Another institution bearing historical responsibility for promoting eugenics in interwar Estonia is the University of Tartu. "Eugenics found a formal home at the university in 1939 with the establishment of the Eugenics Institute. Hans Madisson had been teaching materials related to eugenics earlier, but in 1939, they took on a concrete institutional form," Chen explained.

Chen noted that the formation of the eugenics department followed direct pressure from the government. For instance, while the university preferred to delay the institute's opening and conduct a credible search for the department head, the government pushed for the appointment of the sole candidate, Madisson.

The new department was, according to Chen, connected to leading global eugenics research. Researchers from the institute undertook study trips to key eugenics centers in Nazi Germany, collaborating with institutes in Munich, Frankfurt and Breslau. Among others, Estonian researchers attended lectures by Eugen Fischer, a prominent figure in German eugenics and a model for Hitler. Fischer's ideas significantly influenced Estonian eugenicists, even appearing in written form; the local eugenics society, for example, used Fischer's works in their handbook.

Eugenics also influenced university societies and fraternities in Estonia. According to Chen, members of these fraternities presented lectures on topics ranging from heredity to the overpopulation of Asians. "Many of these lectures directly or indirectly referenced the Estonian Eugenics Society's handbook, 'Inheritance and Selection: A Handbook of Racial Hygiene.' This suggests that the society's publication had a broad audience among students," Chen added. The largest concentration of eugenicists and eugenics-leaning intellectuals was in the student society Raimla, whose alumni included Hans Madisson and Juhan Aul.

The most grim chapter in the history of Estonian eugenic institutions came in the latter half of the 1930s, with the passage of the sterilization law in 1936, which came into effect in the spring of 1937. It is known that 41 people were sterilized in Estonia under this law, the majority of whom were women.

Eugenics widespread

According to Paris Chen, a key aspect of the history of eugenics in Estonia is that it was a widespread societal endeavor, not just the domain of a few enthusiasts. Eugenic thinking, language, attitudes and initiatives permeated all levels of society. "Take A. H. Tammsaare's novel 'I Loved a German' (1935), for example, which discusses the concept of human races. While we certainly cannot claim that Tammsaare was a eugenicist, such vocabulary was undoubtedly prevalent in society," Chen explained.

For instance, the same year Tammsaare's book was published, a eugenics congress was held in Tallinn, which became a major topic in local media for several months. At the second Congress of National Education, Estonian eugenicists, representatives of the societal elite and even Konstantin Päts participated. This illustrates the extent to which eugenics was embedded in the cultural and intellectual life of the time.

"My research uncovered that the eugenics congress held in the capital had repercussions throughout Estonia," Chen explained. Inspired by the congress, mock trials were held in rural areas, targeting unmarried men accused of anti-national activities, such as hindering population growth and engaging in non-eugenic behavior. While these trials were humorous in larger towns like Viljandi, they blurred the line between jest and seriousness in smaller places, such as Audru.

The ambiguity between seriousness and humor was compounded by the fact that these mock trials were presided over by local authorities, including church ministers, county governors and other influential figures. Additionally, the defendants were not always actors; sometimes, they were ordinary community members, particularly bachelors.

Surprisingly, eugenic thinking was also present among the more progressive elements of interwar Estonian society, including feminists. "As with other groups, the picture among women's rights activists was quite diverse. Some were convinced eugenicists and members of the society, while others used eugenics strategically to advance women's issues," Chen noted.

During the eugenics congress, male speakers advocated for improving the Estonian race's quality and increasing birth rates. In response, feminist activists Helmi Mäelo and Marie Reisik expressed agreement with the goal but highlighted different social levers to achieve it.

"They urged the male participants to consider the situation of single mothers, suggesting that a true eugenic approach should involve reevaluating child support distribution in a way that primarily helps mothers and their children, rather than absentee fathers," Chen explained. Thus, the proposal from the women's movement representatives was to support those directly responsible for raising children. However, Chen noted that the men who participated in the congress completely ignored the women's input.

In addition to advocating for the redistribution of child support, some feminist eugenicists also supported sterilization. They argued that making men infertile could reduce the number of abortions, thereby protecting women's health. "The eugenics embraced by feminists is particularly interesting and distinct because it generally centered on women's interests and broader healthcare concerns. Men often either ignored these issues or co-opted them as slogans for their own agendas, without a genuine connection to the messages or circumstances of women," Chen added. This focus on women's health and rights marked a significant divergence from the broader eugenics movement, which typically prioritized other societal concerns.

What happened after loss of independence?

During the German occupation, eugenics briefly flourished in Estonia, with racial science gaining momentum at the University of Tartu. However, the Soviet authorities shut down the institute entirely upon taking control. Although there had been a strong eugenics movement in Russia during the 1920s, it was suppressed under Stalin, who associated it with fascism. The same happened in Estonia, where one of the first actions of the Soviet regime was to repeal the sterilization law.

Looking back at the history of eugenics in Estonia, Chen notes that it was remarkably advanced compared to other countries that gained independence in the early 20th century. For instance, while Czechoslovakia established eugenics research institutions much earlier, these ideas were never translated into public policies as they were in Estonia in the late 1930s. Therefore, Chen believes that Estonia stands out in the history of eugenics in Europe.

An interesting topic, according to Chen, is how former eugenicists tried to reinvent themselves during the Cold War. For example, Juhan Aul transitioned into genetics and anthropology. "When we look closely at their later research, it's evident that earlier eugenic ideas and patterns carried over into their subsequent work. Publicly, they might have condemned their past activities, but this wasn't always reflected in their future endeavors," Chen concluded.

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