These could include deploying armed drones on the border and easing pilot restrictions on opening fire, and form part of talks between allies initiated by eastern flank member states.

The talks, four NATO officials briefed on them told The FT, aim to raise the stakes in Moscow's pursuit of hybrid warfare and destabilization tactics, and lay out clear countermeasures following the recent airspace violations by Russian drones and planes, including three MiG 31 jets which spent around 12 minutes in Estonian airspace on Friday, September 19.

Eastern flank nations initiated the talks, backed initially by France and the U.K. and later joined in support by more member states, according to two of the NATO officials.

U.S. President Donald Trump had said last month that NATO should "open fire" on any Russian aircraft which breach allied territory, while U.S. Ambassador to NATO Matthew Whittaker last week called it paramount "to make sure that we have enough rungs on the escalation ladder."

One of the NATO diplomats The FT spoke to stressed the talks are still in their initial phases, but are "active discussions" on "how to better and more efficiently respond to Russia," while another of the four officials summed up the recent gray-zone or hybrid activities seen from Russia as cyberattacks, drone incursions and attempts to sabotage critical infrastructure, adding "NATO is working closely with allies to ensure we're taking appropriate steps to ensure we can deter and defend."

All the officials also cautioned the situation is evolving, is open-ended, and that shifts may not be publicly communicated, though one source also referenced the Eastern Sentry mission as adding "strength and flexibility to our posture along the eastern flank and beyond," noting also its use of novel tech.

Concrete proposals include potentially streamlining and harmonizing the rules of engagement on the eastern flank – while some NATO states require fighter pilots such as those flying from Estonia's Ämari Base to make visual confirmation of threats before engaging, others permit them to open fire based on radar data and perceived threats and in the context of the direction or speed of the hostile object.

Arming surveillance and intel drones and NATO military exercises in more exposed areas of the eastern flank have also been floated.

The officials also identified a range of stances among NATO capitals on deterrence, from the more aggressive to the more conservative and cautious.

The talks and the remarks from President Trump follow the recent Russian provocations not only in Estonian airspace, but, in the case of drone flights, in Polish and Romanian airspace; the even more recent and mass disruptions by drones at airports in Belgium, Denmark and Germany have not been officially attributed to Russia, though some officials have done just that, mentioning cyberattacks and sabotage attempts in the same context.

The EU, too, is preparing to take its own steps in response to Russian provocations which could include better anti-drone measures, and a crackdown on travel inside the bloc of Russian diplomats suspected by intelligence agencies of running agents and sabotage operations in countries other than where they are officially posted.

European Commission president Ursula von der Leyen said Wednesday "This is a deliberate and targeted gray-zone campaign against Europe. And Europe must respond."

NATO held emergency talks twice last month, prompted by the incidents in Poland and Estonia, and launched Eastern Sentry — a mission to bolster the air defenses of front-line states.

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